View Law and Criminology Research Papers on blogger.com for free Research Papers on Criminology. Criminology is a broad field which has grown significantly in the past few years. The domain encompasses the area of political relevance as well. A criminology research paper therefore needs to focus on the key mobilizing points of consensus in order to bring an authentic approach to the work Part IV: Measurement and Research in Criminology provides example research papers on various quantitative and qualitative designs and techniques employed in criminology research. Comparison of the purposes and application of these research methods across various criminal justice topics illustrates the role of criminologists as social scientists
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We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates. Criminology is the study of crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. While this captures the essence of the discipline, there has been considerable debate about what constitutes criminal behavior and how it differs from other behaviors widely held to be socially deviant.
This debate has produced five types of definitions of criminality: natural law explanations, moralistic explanations, labeling explanations, social harm explanations, and legalistic explanations. Natural law explanations of criminality are perhaps the oldest of the five. They are influenced by natural law theory, which suggests that some behaviors must be universally prohibited because by their nature they are so morally repugnant or detrimental to the normal functioning of society.
When the majority of people living in any given society finds a particular action morally reprehensible, their will, often expressed through representative legislators, becomes law. In contrast to natural law and moralistic definitions of crime, labeling or critical definitions suggest that no behavior is intrinsically criminal, nor is the will of the majority of society members necessarily relevant to the designation of a behavior as criminal.
Rather, crimes are behaviors that are defined as such by those in positions of power. In support of these claims, criminology research papers, labeling theorists point out that affluent and powerful people are far more likely than the poor and powerless to escape criminal prosecution. Other definitions of crime have rested on more pragmatic considerations, criminology research papers as social harm.
Harms-based definitions suggest that crime is any behavior that infringes upon basic human rights or otherwise produces individual or social harm. This definition suggests that a crime is any behavior that is legislatively prohibited and committed without defense or justification. When these three elements converge—an act or behavior, a statement by a legislature that these behaviors are unacceptable, and the absence of a legally valid reason for committing the act— then regardless of social harm, moral judgments, criminology research papers, or relative power, a person has committed a crime.
One important caveat in any discussion of crime is that virtually everything people do in modern industrial and postindustrial criminology research papers is regulated by law, and most of it has nothing to do criminology research papers the criminal law or crime.
Contracts we enter into, nutrition labels on foods, criminology research papers, levels of vehicle emissions, the amount of taxes we are required to pay, the methods we use in voting, the height of the buildings in which we work, and nearly everything else we do and experience in our day-to-day lives are regulated by a complex web of laws that have nothing to do with criminal law.
Nonetheless, criminology research papers of the personal nature of many crimes, the criminal law tends to be the most visible category of law in modern societies. For the purposes of data collection and comparison, criminology research papers, crime data is usually divided into two broad categories: personal crimes and property crimes, criminology research papers. Personal crimes include crimes of violence such as murder and robbery as well as any other criminal offenses that involve direct contact criminology research papers a perpetrator and a victim, such as rape, aggravated assault, and battery.
Property crimes are those in which personal property is the object of the offense and there is no force or threat of force used against the person to whom the property rightfully belongs. Examples of property crimes include larceny-theft, burglary, motorvehicle theft, and arson.
Property crimes occur with far greater frequency than personal crimes, criminology research papers, making up between 85 and 90 percent of all crimes reported to U. law-enforcement agencies. Expressed differently, according to official data, every Beyond the distinction between personal and property crimes, other more detailed differentiations among criminal behaviors exist. Other types not discussed in this article include hate crime, environmental crime, criminology research papers, technological crime, and political crime.
There are four major violent crimes tracked by both the Federal Bureau of Investigation and most international criminology research papers agencies: murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Many countries also recognize criminology research papers rape—sexual intercourse with a person usually female under the legal age of consent which varies from country to country.
Robbery involves taking personal property from criminology research papers possession of another against his criminology research papers her will by the use or threat of force.
The threat of violence is what distinguishes robbery from the lesser offense of theft. Aggravated assault refers to an unlawful attack by one person on another for the purpose of inflicting severe bodily injury. Among Western industrialized nations, the United States long has been considered a particularly violent and crime-ridden society, criminology research papers.
However, according to the International Crime Victimization Survey, U. victimization rates for many personal and property crimes may not be much different from other nations Mayhew and van Dijk criminology research papers This survey criminology research papers, the United States continues to have rates of murder and other serious violent crimes that vastly exceed those of other highincome nations.
The term white-collar crime was coined by Edwin Sutherland, former president of the American Sociological Association. In his presidential address Sutherland discussed persons of the upper socioeconomic class whose criminal behavior is dealt with much less severely than that of the lower socioeconomic classes Sutherland These more recent definitions of white-collar crime usually contain some or all of the following elements: an illegal act, committed by nonphysical means, criminology research papers, with concealment or guile, to obtain money or property, or to obtain a business or personal advantage, criminology research papers.
Criminologists have also begun to recognize corporate crime as a distinct form of criminology research papers crime, in which the immediate benefits of the criminal behavior go to a corporation rather than to any particular individual. Similarly, about 16, people are murdered each year in the United States, but far more people die as the result of white-collar criminal activities.
For example, more thanpeople die each year in the United States because of neglect of worker-safety requirements, on-the-job accidents, and exposure to hazardous materials in the workplace Reiman Organized crime refers to criminal enterprises that specialize in vice crimes such as gambling, prostitution, drug operations, and other correlated illegal activities, including money laundering and racketeering.
The origin of organized crime in the United States is often traced to national Prohibition criminology research papers the s Brown et al. The controversial federal ban on alcoholic beverages brought about by the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution and the Volstead Act created opportunities for criminal syndicates to flourish by illegally supplying liquor; later they were able to expand their enterprises into vice and other illicit activities.
Victimless crime refers to illicit behaviors in which the participants do not recognize that anyone involved in the illegal transaction is directly victimized by the deed. Examples of victimless crimes include prostitution, pornography, illegal gambling, and drug use.
Victimless crime is a contentious label because, criminology research papers, while none of the parties sees themselves as victims, many people argue that society itself is harmed by the prohibited behaviors, criminology research papers. For example, it is argued that illegal drug use drives up healthcare costs for everyone, destabilizes families and communities, drains worker productivity, and leads to a number of additional social problems.
Further, a meta-analysis of North American studies on prostitution found that prostitutes are very likely to become victims of violence during the course of their work Farley and Kelley In contrast, criminology research papers, other theorists argue that victimless crimes should not be considered crimes at all.
In support of these latter claims, they highlight the variations in prohibitions from state to state and country to country, and societal ambivalence toward many of the prohibited activities.
Toward this last point, in an estimated Critics of the criminalization of these behaviors also refer to substances such as alcohol and tobacco that are legally available but cause greater social harm than illicit substances.
Perhaps the most understudied area of criminology is the role society plays in fostering certain types of crime, such as domestic abuse, hate crime, and sexual assault. Over the past century most societies have changed for the better with regard to recognizing all people as equals irrespective of characteristics such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and religion. However, the extensive histories of inequality and violence have undoubtedly shaped how crimes are defined, and have also played a role in the types of crimes prevalent in any given society.
For example, many theorists have argued that the relatively high rates of serious violent crime in the United States can be traced to the culture of violence produced during its particularly hostile settlement: African slavery, Native American genocide, and warfare related to Manifest Destiny all set the stage for a future mired by violence.
Rape presents another example of the social production of crime. For much of world history, patriarchy has been a primary principle around which societies have been structured. Many theorists have argued that this history of socially constructed male supremacy is strongly correlated with rates of male-on-female sexual assault and has shaped how sexual assault has been defined over time, criminology research papers.
Only in the latter part of the twentieth century did U. lawmakers pass laws against marital rape—that is, a rape committed by a husband upon his lawful wife. Tolerance for rape in marriage, as well as rape laws that historically have protected the property interests of men over the personal safety of women, criminology research papers, may partially explain why rape is so prevalent: each year in the United States nearlyforcible rapes are reported to police.
This figure does not reflect the estimatedunreported forcible rapes committed against women each year in the United States, nor does it capture lesser-degree sexual assaults that do not meet the reporting criteria required for a charge of forcible rape. Contrary to the efforts of hard-line positivist criminologists who seek to identify biological traits that predispose people to criminal behavior, and rational-choice theorists who suggest people commit crimes of their own free will, criminology research papers, the consensus among most criminologists is that sociological factors play a significant role in producing criminal behavior.
Criminological research has shown that there is no one socioeconomic factor that has proved an accurate predictor of criminal behavior. However, there are some variables that seem to affect the likelihood, volume, and type of crimes that occur in particular countries, regions, and communities. For traditional street crimes, criminology research papers, socioeconomic variables such as criminology research papers income, educational attainment criminology research papers access to education, religion, family conditions e.
Population density and the degree of urbanization, the concentration of youth in a community, community stability e. Of all of these links, the correlation between alcohol and drug use and crime receives the greatest attention from both academicians and policymakers.
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, criminology research papers, 35 to 40 percent of all convicted offenders under the jurisdiction of U. corrections agencies were estimated to have been under the influence of alcohol when they offended. Alcohol use is widespread among those convicted of public-order crimes, the most common type of offense among those in jail or on probation.
Among violent offenders, about 40 percent of probationers, local jail inmates, and state prisoners, as well as 20 percent of federal prison inmates, were estimated to have been drinking when they committed the crime for which they were sentenced, criminology research papers.
Comparatively, in a recent survey of jail inmates nearly 30 percent reported drug use at the time they committed their offense, and an estimated 16 percent of convicted jail inmates committed their offenses to get money for drugs. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, about 40 percent of adults who were on parole, probation, or some other form of supervised release from jail were classified as drug dependents or drug abusers, criminology research papers, compared to 9 percent of the general U, criminology research papers.
population U. Department of Health and Human Services In the United States, if recent incarceration rates remain unchanged, an estimated one of every fifteen persons will serve time in a prison during his or her lifetime. However, the lifetime chances of a person being sentenced to a prison term differ based on race, ethnicity, and gender.
Men stand an This dramatic difference remains in spite of the significant increases in rates of female criminality since the s. Of even greater concern to criminologists are the differences that exist along racial and ethnic lines. Inapproximately 65 percent of U. state prison inmates belong to a racial or ethnic minority. African Americans have an Based on current rates of first incarceration, an estimated 32 percent of black males will enter state or federal prison during their lifetime, compared to 17 percent of Hispanic males and 5.
It comes as no surprise to most criminologists that the U. criminal justice system is not an effective tool in preventing crime. One reason for this lies in criminology research papers uncoordinated structure of the system itself. Criminal justice in the United States is only partly coordinated and unified. the U, criminology research papers. Another reason the criminal justice system is largely incapable of preventing crime is that law enforcement, courts, and corrections are reactive institutions; they respond to crimes already committed rather than addressing the root causes of criminal behavior before they fester into crime.
This is not a condemnation of the efforts of law enforcement or corrections officers: the criminal justice system simply does not have the resources, expertise, or capabilities to deal with most predictors of criminal behavior.
Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics and Ideas
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Criminology Research Paper Introduction. Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. In an early analysis, Edwin Measuring Crime. Criminology is an empirical discipline and therefore relies on the scientific method to observe and Patterns of Crime Research Papers on Criminology. Criminology is a broad field which has grown significantly in the past few years. The domain encompasses the area of political relevance as well. A criminology research paper therefore needs to focus on the key mobilizing points of consensus in order to bring an authentic approach to the work Criminology Criminology research papers examine the study of crime that looks into all aspects relating to crime. Over the course of the last century, there have been a number of developments in theories relating to criminology. Criminology is the study of crime and all aspects relating to crime
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